Sources and References

Primary textbook — Lisa Gold, Music in Bali: Experiencing Music, Expressing Culture (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005).

Supplementary texts — Michael Tenzer, Balinese Gamelan Music, 3rd ed. (Tuttle, 2011); Michael Tenzer, Gamelan Gong Kebyar: The Art of Twentieth-Century Balinese Music (University of Chicago Press, 2000); Ruby Ornstein, “Gamelan Gong Kebjar: The Development of a Balinese Musical Tradition” (PhD diss., UCLA); I Made Bandem and Fredrik deBoer, Balinese Dance in Transition.

Online resources — Public university gamelan ensemble materials; ethnomusicology resources at UCLA, Wesleyan, and UC Santa Cruz; Smithsonian Folkways recordings of Balinese gamelan.

Chapter 1: Bali, Music, and Community

1.1 Geographic and Cultural Context

Bali is a relatively small island in the Indonesian archipelago, situated between Java to the west and Lombok to the east. Roughly 5,780 square kilometres in area, the island is home to approximately four million people. Its topography is dominated by a volcanic mountain range running east to west, with Mount Agung — the island’s highest peak at roughly 3,000 metres — considered the most sacred point on the island. The southern slopes descend through terraced rice paddies to coastal plains, and the entire landscape is imbued with spiritual significance. In Balinese cosmology, the mountains are the realm of the gods and ancestors, while the sea is associated with demonic forces and impurity. This spatial orientation — kaja (toward the mountain, sacred) versus kelod (toward the sea, profane) — permeates every aspect of Balinese life, from the layout of villages and temples to the positioning of musicians in a performance.

Bali’s cultural distinctiveness within Indonesia stems largely from the fact that it remained predominantly Hindu when the rest of the archipelago converted to Islam between the thirteenth and sixteenth centuries. When the Hindu-Javanese Majapahit empire collapsed in the late fifteenth century, many of its priests, artists, nobles, and intellectuals fled to Bali, bringing with them courtly arts, literary traditions, and religious practices that merged with indigenous Balinese animism and ancestor worship. The result is a unique cultural synthesis that has no exact parallel elsewhere in Southeast Asia.

The island’s economy was historically agrarian, centred on wet-rice cultivation sustained by an elaborate system of irrigation cooperatives called subak. These cooperatives required — and continue to require — intensive communal coordination, reinforcing a social ethos in which collective effort and mutual obligation are fundamental values. This same ethos extends directly into musical life: gamelan ensembles are communal property, rehearsals are communal events, and performances serve communal functions. As Lisa Gold emphasises, in Bali music is never merely entertainment; it is an integral part of the fabric of social and spiritual life.

1.2 Hindu-Balinese Religion and Cosmology

The religion practised in Bali is commonly called Agama Hindu Dharma (also referred to as Agama Tirtha or Hindu-Balinese religion). While it shares certain foundational concepts with Indian Hinduism — the Trimurti of Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva; the concepts of dharma, karma, and reincarnation; and the use of Sanskrit sacred texts — it is heavily inflected by indigenous Balinese beliefs in ancestor spirits, nature deities, and the animate character of the landscape. The supreme deity is Sang Hyang Widhi Wasa, understood as a singular divine principle that manifests in many forms.

Balinese cosmology is structured around the opposition and balance of complementary forces. The concept of rwa bhineda (two in opposition) holds that the universe is constituted by pairs of contrasting but interdependent elements: good and evil, sacred and profane, mountain and sea, right and left, male and female. The purpose of religious ritual is to maintain balance — sekala (the visible, material world) must be kept in harmony with niskala (the invisible, spiritual world). When the balance is disturbed, misfortune follows; when it is maintained through correct ritual action, prosperity and well-being result.

This cosmological framework has direct musical implications. Paired tuning in gamelan instruments, the male-female pairing of drums, the interlocking of complementary melodic parts — all of these reflect the deeper principle of rwa bhineda. Music is not merely an accompaniment to ritual; it is itself a ritual technology, a means of communicating with the spirit world and maintaining cosmic equilibrium.

The Balinese religious calendar is extraordinarily complex, combining a 210-day ceremonial calendar (pawukon) with a lunar-solar calendar (saka). The pawukon calendar alone generates an intricate schedule of temple festivals, each requiring specific types of music. There are an estimated 20,000 temples on the island, and every temple celebrates an anniversary festival (odalan) every 210 days. At any given time, somewhere on the island, a temple festival is underway, and gamelan music is sounding.

1.3 Music in Ritual and Ceremony

Music in Bali serves functions that range from the deeply sacred to the broadly entertaining, and Balinese people themselves recognise a hierarchy of contexts. The most sacred music is that performed in the innermost courtyard of a temple (jeroan) during the climactic moments of a ceremony, when deities are believed to be present. Certain ensembles — notably Gamelan Gambang and Gamelan Selonding — are considered so sacred that they may only be played in specific ritual contexts and are never performed for secular entertainment. At the other end of the spectrum, social dances and theatrical performances in the outer courtyard may be primarily recreational, though even these carry spiritual overtones.

Temple ceremonies require specific musical offerings at specific moments. A procession to the temple might be accompanied by Gamelan Baleganjur, a marching ensemble of gongs, cymbals, and drums that produces a powerful, rhythmically driving sound designed to energise the participants and ward off malevolent spirits. Inside the temple, a Gamelan Gong or Gamelan Semar Pegulingan might provide the refined, stately music appropriate to devotional contexts. Shadow puppet theatre (wayang kulit), accompanied by the delicate four-piece metallophone ensemble Gender Wayang, is performed at important life-cycle ceremonies including cremations, tooth-filing rituals, and weddings.

Cremation ceremonies (ngaben) are among the most elaborate rituals in Balinese life, and they involve multiple types of music. The procession of the cremation tower to the cremation ground is accompanied by baleganjur, while gender wayang performs the narratives that guide the soul’s transition. The mood of a cremation is not mournful but celebratory, for it marks the liberation of the soul from the body and its journey toward eventual reincarnation or, ultimately, union with the divine. The music reflects this: it is vigorous, rhythmically vital, and often festive.

Tooth-filing (metatah or mepandes) is a coming-of-age ceremony in which the upper canine teeth are symbolically filed down. This ritual signifies the taming of the six inner enemies (desire, greed, anger, confusion, jealousy, and intoxication with worldly things) and the transition from animalistic to civilised human status. Gender wayang traditionally accompanies this ceremony, and the music’s refined, ethereal quality is understood to create a purified atmosphere appropriate to the transformation taking place.

1.4 The Banjar: Community Organisation and Musical Life

The fundamental unit of social organisation in Bali is the banjar, a neighbourhood council that functions as a kind of local government, mutual-aid society, and cultural institution all in one. Every adult married man in a given neighbourhood is obligated to be a member of the banjar, to attend its meetings, to contribute labour to communal projects, and to participate in the collective activities that the banjar organises — including, centrally, the maintenance and performance of its gamelan ensemble.

Most banjars own at least one set of gamelan instruments, which are stored in the bale banjar (community meeting hall). These instruments are communal property — they belong to the banjar as a whole, not to any individual. The decision to commission a new set of instruments, to hire a teacher, or to enter a competition is made collectively. Rehearsals take place in the bale banjar, and all banjar members are welcome to participate, though in practice the active performing group (sekaha gong, literally “gamelan club”) consists of those with the most aptitude and dedication.

The communal ownership of instruments has profound implications for the character of gamelan music. Because the ensemble is a collective resource, the music it produces is understood as a collective achievement. There is no tradition of the solo virtuoso in Balinese gamelan; even the most technically demanding parts are played by pairs of musicians working in close interlocking coordination. The aesthetic ideal is a sound so tightly integrated that it seems to emanate from a single source — not from twenty-five or thirty individual players, but from the gamelan itself, understood as a unified organism.

The spirit of gotong royong (mutual assistance, communal labour) that pervades Balinese social life finds its purest musical expression in the gamelan. Every member of the ensemble depends on every other member; a single player who falters can disrupt the entire fabric. Conversely, when the ensemble is performing at its best, the individual disappears into the collective, and the music achieves a quality of seamless, shimmering totality that is one of gamelan’s most distinctive aesthetic properties.

1.5 Festivals, Competitions, and Contemporary Musical Life

Balinese musical culture is not static or purely traditionalist; it is dynamic, competitive, and continually evolving. One of the most important engines of musical innovation is the island-wide competition system. Since the 1930s — and with increasing frequency and elaboration since Indonesian independence in 1945 — government-sponsored festivals and competitions have provided a powerful incentive for villages and banjars to develop new repertoire, refine their performance technique, and push the boundaries of the tradition.

The most prestigious of these events is the annual Bali Arts Festival (Pesta Kesenian Bali, or PKB), held every June and July in the provincial capital, Denpasar. Inaugurated in 1979, the PKB brings together performing groups from across the island for a month of competitions, exhibitions, seminars, and performances. Competition categories include traditional and contemporary gamelan, dance, shadow puppetry, and various other performing arts. The stakes are high — a village’s prestige is on the line — and the preparation is intense, often involving months of daily rehearsal under the guidance of a distinguished composer or teacher.

These competitions have been a major driver of the kreasi baru (new creation) movement, in which composers create original works that draw on traditional forms and techniques while introducing novel structures, textures, and dramatic effects. The result is a tradition that honours its roots while continually renewing itself — a dynamic that is central to the ethos of this course.

Chapter 2: The Gamelan

2.1 What Is a Gamelan?

The word gamelan derives from the Javanese word gamel, meaning to strike or to handle, and it refers to an ensemble of predominantly percussion instruments — metallophones, gongs, drums, cymbals, and sometimes flutes and bowed strings — that are built, tuned, and played as a unified set. A gamelan is not simply a collection of instruments; it is a single, indivisible musical entity. The instruments of a given gamelan are forged and tuned together, and they cannot be mixed with instruments from another set. Each gamelan has its own unique tuning, its own timbral character, and often its own name and spiritual identity.

In Bali, the concept of the gamelan as a unified entity is reinforced by the practice of storing all instruments together in the bale banjar, by the spiritual consecration of the ensemble (a new gamelan undergoes a blessing ceremony before it may be played), and by the belief that the instruments themselves possess a kind of spiritual vitality. The largest gong in the ensemble, the gong ageng, is treated with particular reverence; offerings are placed before it at every performance, and it is understood to embody the spiritual centre of the ensemble.

There are more than thirty distinct types of gamelan in Bali, each associated with specific ceremonial contexts, repertoires, and historical periods. Some, like the seven-tone Gamelan Gambang and the iron-keyed Gamelan Selonding, are ancient forms preserved in specific villages for sacred rituals. Others, like the brilliant bronze Gamelan Gong Kebyar, are relatively modern creations that have come to dominate Balinese musical life. The diversity of gamelan types reflects the depth and complexity of Balinese musical culture: rather than evolving in a single line from simple to complex, the tradition has proliferated laterally, generating a rich ecosystem of ensembles suited to different purposes.

2.2 Instrument Families

Balinese gamelan instruments can be broadly grouped into several families based on their construction, function, and position within the ensemble’s texture. Understanding these families is essential to grasping how gamelan music works, because each family occupies a distinct layer in the overall sonic fabric.

Metallophones (Gangsa Family)

The gangsa family comprises tuned bronze bars (or, in some ensembles, iron or bamboo keys) suspended over tubular resonators. The bars are struck with a wooden or horn mallet held in the right hand, while the left hand damps the previously struck key to prevent it from ringing on. This damping technique is fundamental to gangsa playing and gives the melodic lines their characteristic crisp, articulate quality.

The gangsa family is arranged in a hierarchy of register and function:

Each instrument in the gangsa family exists as a pair: one tuned slightly higher and one tuned slightly lower. When both instruments of a pair are struck simultaneously, the slight pitch difference between them produces a shimmering pulsation known as ombak (wave). This paired tuning is one of the most immediately recognisable features of the Balinese gamelan sound and is discussed in detail in Chapter 3.

Gongs

Gongs are the structural pillars of gamelan music. They mark the beginning and end of cycles, subdivide the temporal framework, and provide the deep, resonant foundation over which the metallophones elaborate. The principal gongs in a Gamelan Gong Kebyar include:

• Gong Ageng (also called gong wadon and gong lanang): The largest gong, hung vertically on a frame. A pair of gongs is standard — one slightly larger (wadon, female) and one slightly smaller (lanang, male). The gong ageng marks the end (and simultaneously the beginning) of each major gong cycle. Its deep, sustained tone is the gravitational centre of the ensemble.

• Kempur: A medium-sized hanging gong that subdivides the gong cycle, typically sounding at the midpoint of a cycle. Its pitch is higher than the gong ageng but still deep and resonant.

• Kemong (or klentong): A small hanging gong or a horizontally mounted pot gong that provides finer subdivisions of the colotomic structure. Its clear, bright tone punctuates the cycle at regular intervals.

• Kajar: A small, horizontally mounted pot gong played by the drummer’s partner. The kajar maintains a steady beat, functioning somewhat like a timekeeper or metronome, and its regular pulse anchors the ensemble’s rhythmic flow.

• Kempli: Similar to the kajar, a small pot gong that keeps a steady beat and helps regulate tempo.

Drums (Kendang)

The kendang (drums) are the rhythmic leaders of the ensemble. Balinese kendang are double-headed, asymmetrical drums played with the hands (and sometimes with a mallet on one head). They come in several sizes, but the most important are the paired drums kendang lanang (male, smaller, higher-pitched) and kendang wadon (female, larger, lower-pitched), which are played by two musicians sitting side by side and engaging in a complex interlocking dialogue.

The lead drummer (tukang kendang) is effectively the conductor of the ensemble. Through drum patterns, accents, and cues, the lead drummer controls the tempo, signals transitions between sections, and coordinates starts and stops. The drummer’s role is explored in depth in Chapter 7.

Cymbals (Ceng-Ceng)

Ceng-ceng are small bronze cymbals, either mounted on a frame (ceng-ceng kopyak) or held in the hands. They provide a brilliant, cutting rhythmic layer, typically playing rapid interlocking patterns that add to the overall density and energy of the texture. In loud, vigorous passages — particularly in kebyar-style music — the ceng-ceng contribute a shimmering, metallic wash that is one of the most exciting elements of the sound.

Flute (Suling)

The suling is a bamboo end-blown flute that provides a lyrical, singing quality above the metallic shimmer of the rest of the ensemble. In some genres (particularly Gamelan Semar Pegulingan and Gamelan Gong Kebyar), the suling plays free, ornamented melodic lines that float above the fixed patterns of the metallophones. Because the suling is a wind instrument with continuous pitch capability, it is uniquely able to bend notes, add vibrato, and create a vocal quality that contrasts beautifully with the percussive attack of the bronze instruments.

Rebab

The rebab is a two-stringed bowed lute of Middle Eastern origin that appears in certain Balinese ensembles, particularly Gamelan Semar Pegulingan. Like the suling, it provides a continuous, singing melodic line and is played with considerable melodic freedom. The rebab’s role is primarily that of a melodic leader or embellisher rather than a structural support.

2.3 Construction and Materials

Traditional Balinese gamelan instruments are made from bronze — specifically, a tin-rich alloy called kerawang (approximately 10 parts copper to 3 parts tin). The manufacture of gamelan instruments is a specialised craft practised by families of smiths (pande) who possess closely guarded techniques of forging, shaping, and tuning. The process of creating a set of gamelan keys and gongs involves repeated cycles of heating, hammering, and quenching, and the final tuning is achieved by carefully removing material from specific areas of each key or gong.

The resonators beneath the metallophone keys are typically made from bamboo tubes cut to precise lengths so that each resonator amplifies the fundamental frequency of the key above it. The frames and casings are carved from wood and are often elaborately decorated with painted and gilded carvings depicting mythological scenes, floral motifs, and protective demons. A complete gamelan set is not merely a musical instrument but a work of visual art, and its physical beauty is understood to reflect and enhance its spiritual power.

Some ensembles use iron (as in the ancient Gamelan Selonding) or bamboo (as in Gamelan Jegog and various village ensembles where bronze is too expensive). Bamboo instruments produce a warmer, more diffuse tone compared to the bright, penetrating sound of bronze, but they can be remarkably loud and powerful — the giant bamboo tubes of a Gamelan Jegog produce a deep, thundering resonance that can be felt in the chest.

2.4 Paired Tuning and Ombak

One of the most distinctive features of the Balinese gamelan sound is the shimmering, pulsating quality produced by paired tuning. Every metallophone in the ensemble exists as a pair: one instrument is tuned slightly sharp of the intended pitch, and its partner is tuned slightly flat. When both instruments of a pair play the same note simultaneously, the small frequency difference between them generates a regular fluctuation in amplitude — an acoustic phenomenon known as beating. The Balinese call this pulsation ombak, meaning wave.

The rate of the ombak is not accidental; it is a deliberate aesthetic choice made by the tuner and is one of the characteristics that give each gamelan its unique sonic personality. A faster ombak (wider pitch difference) produces a more agitated, brilliant quality, while a slower ombak (narrower pitch difference) produces a calmer, more stately quality. The tuner adjusts the ombak by minutely filing or hammering the keys until the desired beating rate is achieved across all pairs.

The paired instruments are designated as pengumbang (the lower-tuned member of the pair, literally “the one that hums”) and pengisep (the higher-tuned member, literally “the one that sucks in”). This terminology echoes the broader Balinese principle of complementary duality: the two instruments are distinct yet inseparable, and their combined sound is qualitatively different from — and greater than — either alone.

2.5 The Gamelan as a Single Instrument

A recurring theme in writings about Balinese gamelan is the idea that the ensemble functions as a single instrument played by many hands. This is not merely a metaphor. The interlocking technique (kotekan) means that melodic lines are literally distributed between two players, each contributing alternating notes that combine to form a complete pattern that neither player performs alone. The paired tuning means that the full timbral richness of each pitch emerges only when both instruments of a pair sound together. The stratified polyphony means that the music’s total effect depends on the simultaneous presence of all layers, from the deep gong tones to the rapid metallophone figurations.

This conception of the ensemble as a unified organism has implications for how music is composed, taught, and evaluated. A composer does not write independent parts and then assemble them; rather, the composer conceives the total sound and then distributes it among the instruments according to established conventions. A teacher does not train individual musicians in isolation; rather, musicians learn their parts in the context of the ensemble, hearing and feeling how their part fits into the whole. And the standard of excellence is not individual virtuosity but collective integration — the seamless, locked-in quality that Balinese musicians call kompak (tight, unified).

Chapter 3: Tuning Systems

3.1 Pelog and Slendro

Balinese gamelan music uses two principal tuning systems: pelog and slendro. These systems define the pitch material available to the ensemble and have a profound effect on the character and mood of the music.

Slendro is a five-tone system in which the five pitches are distributed relatively evenly across the octave. The intervals between adjacent pitches are roughly (but not exactly) equal, giving slendro a quality that has sometimes been compared to a pentatonic scale with near-equal temperament. However, the actual intervals in any given Balinese slendro tuning deviate considerably from mathematical equality, and these deviations are aesthetically valued — they give each gamelan its unique character.

Pelog is a seven-tone system with unequal intervals — some large, some small — distributed unevenly across the octave. In practice, most pelog gamelan instruments have only five keys per octave, representing a subset (mode) of the full seven-tone system. The two most common five-tone modes extracted from the seven-tone pelog system are sometimes called selisir (roughly equivalent to scale degrees 1, 2, 3, 5, 6) and tembung (a different five-note selection). The characteristic quality of pelog is a sense of tonal asymmetry — the unequal intervals create a distinctive tension and colour that is immediately distinguishable from slendro’s more even-handed character.

The Balinese names for the five principal tones in a gamelan (regardless of whether the tuning is pelog or slendro) are: ding, dong, deng, dung, and dang. These syllables serve as a solmization system — a way of referring to scale degrees without specifying absolute pitch. They are used in oral teaching, in cipher notation, and in everyday conversation about music.

3.2 Intervallic Structure and Regional Variation

One of the most important things to understand about Balinese tuning is that there is no standardised pitch. Unlike the Western system, in which A4 is defined as 440 Hz and all other pitches are derived from that standard, Balinese tuning is entirely local to each gamelan. Two gamelans tuned in pelog will have recognisably similar intervallic contours — both will have the characteristic pattern of large and small intervals — but the absolute pitches, the exact sizes of the intervals, and the rate of the ombak will differ. This means that instruments from different gamelans cannot be mixed; they would be “out of tune” with each other even though each is perfectly “in tune” with itself.

Regional variation adds another layer of diversity. Gamelans from different parts of Bali — north versus south, highland versus lowland — tend to have subtly different tuning aesthetics. South Balinese gamelans, for instance, are sometimes described as having a somewhat wider, more brilliant sound compared to the slightly narrower tuning preferences found in some northern villages. These regional differences are not codified in any formal system; they emerge organically from local traditions of instrument-making and local aesthetic preferences.

3.3 Tuning as Ensemble Identity

Because each gamelan has a unique tuning, the tuning itself becomes a marker of identity — both for the ensemble and for the community that owns it. Balinese listeners can often identify a particular gamelan by its sound alone, much as one might recognise a person’s voice. This identification extends beyond mere recognition: people develop emotional attachments to the sound of their village gamelan, and the choice of tuning for a new set of instruments is a matter of intense communal deliberation.

The tuner (pande gamelan) who creates a new set of instruments works in close consultation with the community, taking into account their preferences for brightness or mellowness, the desired rate of ombak, and the general character they want the ensemble to project. The tuner’s work is both technical and artistic: it requires an exquisite ear, deep knowledge of metallurgy, and an understanding of how the tuning of each individual key contributes to the ensemble’s total sonic character.

Once a gamelan is tuned and consecrated, its tuning is considered fixed. If a key is damaged and must be replaced, the new key must be tuned to match the existing ensemble precisely — a painstaking process. The tuning of a gamelan is thus analogous to the genome of a living organism: it is the fundamental template that defines the ensemble’s identity, and all the music the ensemble produces is shaped by it.

3.4 Tuning, Affect, and Modal Feeling

Different tuning systems and modes are associated with different affective qualities. Slendro is generally perceived as bright, cheerful, and extroverted, while pelog — with its unequal intervals — is often described as more serious, stately, or melancholy. These associations are not absolute, but they influence the choice of tuning system for different ceremonial and dramatic contexts.

Within the pelog system, different five-note modes have their own characteristic moods. The mode selisir, which includes the tones ding-dong-deng-dung-dang in their standard spacing, is the most commonly used mode in Gamelan Gong Kebyar and is associated with a wide range of expressive qualities. The mode tembung, which substitutes different pitches from the seven-tone pelog system, has a distinctly different colour and is used in specific contexts and compositions.

The relationship between tuning and affect in Balinese music is complex and context-dependent. It is not reducible to simple equivalences (such as “slendro = happy, pelog = sad”), but it is a real and important dimension of musical meaning that Balinese musicians and listeners are keenly attuned to.

3.5 Acoustics of Paired Tuning

The acoustic phenomenon underlying paired tuning deserves additional explanation, as it connects Balinese aesthetic practice to principles of physical acoustics. When two sound sources produce tones at slightly different frequencies — say, 260 Hz and 266 Hz — the listener perceives a single pitch at the average frequency (263 Hz) that regularly swells and fades at a rate equal to the difference between the two frequencies (6 times per second, in this example). This periodic fluctuation in loudness is the acoustic beat, and it is the physical basis of the ombak.

The ombak rate is thus directly controlled by the size of the frequency difference between the paired instruments. Balinese tuners, working entirely by ear and without electronic instruments, are able to adjust this difference with remarkable precision, creating ombak rates that are consistent across all the keys of the ensemble. The typical ombak rate in Balinese gamelan ranges from about 5 to 8 beats per second, though some ensembles (particularly those from southern Bali) prefer rates at the higher end of this range, producing a more active, brilliant shimmer.

The perceptual effect of the ombak is not merely a fluctuation in volume; it also creates a sense of spatial diffusion and timbral richness that gives the gamelan its characteristic enveloping quality. The sound seems to shimmer and breathe, filling the performance space with a vibrant, living presence that is quite unlike the static, clearly located sound of a single instrument played in isolation. This quality — the sense that the sound is alive, animated, and spatially expansive — is one of the reasons that gamelan music has such a powerful impact on first-time listeners.

Chapter 4: Colotomic Structure and Musical Form

4.1 Cyclic Time and the Gong Cycle

Balinese gamelan music is organised not according to a linear, through-composed model but according to a cyclic principle. The fundamental structural unit is the gong cycle — a span of musical time defined by the interval between two strokes of the large gong. Each gong stroke simultaneously marks the end of one cycle and the beginning of the next, creating a continuous, recurring temporal framework within which all other musical activity takes place.

This cyclic conception of time has deep roots in Balinese cosmology, in which time is understood as recurring rather than linear. The 210-day pawukon calendar, the cycles of reincarnation, the agricultural cycle of planting and harvest — all embody the principle that time moves in circles, and that endings are simultaneously beginnings. The gong cycle in music is a sonic manifestation of this worldview.

Within each gong cycle, the temporal framework is subdivided by the strokes of other punctuating instruments — the kempur, kemong, and kempli — creating a hierarchical grid of metric subdivisions. This system of metric punctuation is called colotomic structure (a term coined by the ethnomusicologist Jaap Kunst), and it is one of the defining features of gamelan music throughout Southeast Asia.

4.2 Colotomic Instruments and Their Roles

The term colotomic refers to the way in which specific instruments mark specific points within the gong cycle, creating a scaffolding of structural signposts. Each colotomic instrument has a fixed position within the cycle, and its stroke at that position is as predictable and essential as a pillar in a building.

The principal colotomic instruments and their functions are:

• Gong Ageng: Marks the end/beginning of each full cycle. Its stroke is the most structurally significant moment in the cycle — the point of maximum arrival and departure.

• Kempur: Typically marks the midpoint of the cycle (in a cycle of 8 beats, the kempur sounds on beat 4). In longer cycles, the kempur may sound at quarter points as well.

• Kemong/Klentong: Provides finer subdivisions, marking beats that fall between the gong and kempur strokes.

• Kajar/Kempli: Sounds on every beat (or every other beat), providing a continuous pulse that keeps the ensemble synchronised.

The resulting pattern of strokes creates a characteristic rhythmic fingerprint for each formal type. For example, in a simple 8-beat cycle, the colotomic pattern might look like this:

(Where G = gong, P = kempur, t = kemong, x = kajar)

4.3 Tabuh Forms

Tabuh (literally “to strike” or “a composition”) refers to both the act of playing gamelan music and to the formal structures that organise it. Different tabuh forms are distinguished by the length and internal organisation of their gong cycles. The most commonly encountered tabuh forms in Gamelan Gong Kebyar and related ensembles include:

• Tabuh Telu (three): A form in which the gong cycle is subdivided into three main sections by colotomic strokes. This relatively compact form is common in ceremonial music.

• Tabuh Pat (four): A form with a gong cycle subdivided into four sections. This is one of the most widely used forms in traditional repertoire.

• Tabuh Kutus (eight): A longer form with eight subdivisions per gong cycle, allowing for more elaborate melodic development within each cycle.

These forms are not rigid templates but rather flexible frameworks within which considerable variation is possible. The length of the gong cycle, the number of beats between colotomic strokes, and the specific melodic content can all vary from one composition to another, even within the same tabuh type. What remains constant is the hierarchical relationship between the punctuating instruments and the overall sense of cyclic return.

4.4 Formal Sections: Kawitan, Pengawak, Pengecet

Many Balinese compositions — particularly the longer, more elaborate pieces in the classical and kebyar repertoires — are organised into a sequence of contrasting formal sections, each with its own character, tempo, and mood.

A typical large-scale composition might follow the sequence: kawitan — pengawak — pengecet, sometimes with additional sections such as a pengisep (a slower, more reflective interlude) or a bapang (a moderately fast section in a different metre). The overall trajectory is often one of increasing speed and intensity, building from the stately unfolding of the pengawak to the exhilarating speed and complexity of the pengecet.

4.5 The Relationship Between Form and Cycle

The relationship between the multi-sectional form of a composition and the cyclic structure of the gong cycle is one of the most fascinating aspects of Balinese musical architecture. Within each formal section, the gong cycle repeats multiple times, creating a sense of continuity and stability. When the composition moves from one section to the next — say, from pengawak to pengecet — the character of the gong cycle typically changes: the cycle may become shorter, the tempo faster, and the melodic content more dense.

But even as the sections change, the cyclic principle remains operative. Each section is defined by its own gong cycle, and within that section the cycle repeats as many times as necessary to satisfy the musical or ceremonial requirements. The overall form of the composition thus resembles a chain of cycles, each link in the chain having its own character but all sharing the fundamental principle of cyclic return.

This architecture — cycles within sections within a multi-section form — creates a music that is simultaneously repetitive and progressive, stable and dynamic. The listener experiences both the meditative quality of cyclic repetition and the dramatic quality of sectional contrast, and the interplay between these two principles is a major source of aesthetic richness.

Chapter 5: Stratified Polyphony and Melodic Layers

5.1 The Concept of Stratified Polyphony

Balinese gamelan music is polyphonic, but its polyphony is fundamentally different from the counterpoint found in Western art music. In Western counterpoint, multiple independent melodic lines move simultaneously, each with its own rhythmic profile and melodic logic. In gamelan, the multiple layers of the texture are all derived from a single underlying melody — the pokok or core melody — and their relationship is one of stratification: each layer plays a version of the same melody at a different speed and level of rhythmic density.

The ethnomusicologist Mantle Hood coined the term “stratified polyphony” to describe this texture, and it remains the standard analytical concept for understanding gamelan music. The key insight is that the layers are not independent but interdependent — they are different magnifications of the same musical content, related to each other by consistent ratios of rhythmic density.

5.2 The Pokok: Core Melody

The pokok (literally “trunk” or “core”) is the fundamental melodic line of a composition. It is the melody that would remain if all ornamentation and elaboration were stripped away — the essential sequence of pitches that defines the piece’s identity. The pokok is most clearly audible in the parts played by the middle-register metallophones — the calung and jublag — which present the melody in relatively long, evenly spaced notes.

The pokok is typically a relatively simple melody — a sequence of pitches from the five-tone scale, moving by step or by small intervals, with a clear sense of phrase structure and cadential arrival on structurally important beats (particularly the gong tone). Its simplicity is deceptive, however, because it is precisely this simplicity that allows it to serve as the generative source for the complex elaboration patterns that constitute the music’s most characteristic and exciting surface texture.

5.3 Elaboration Layers

Above the pokok, the higher-pitched metallophones (pemade and kantilan) play rapid figurations that ornament and elaborate the core melody. These elaboration patterns are not freely improvised; they are composed (or, more accurately, collectively worked out in rehearsal) according to established conventions that govern how each pokok tone is elaborated.

The relationship between the pokok and the elaboration is systematic. At structurally important beats — particularly at the midpoint and end of each gong cycle — the elaboration parts converge on the pokok tone, so that the entire ensemble lands together on the same pitch. Between these convergence points, the elaboration parts weave complex, rapid patterns that move around, above, and below the pokok tones, creating a shimmering web of sound that simultaneously decorates and obscures the underlying melody.

The density ratio between the pokok and the elaboration is typically 1:4 or 1:8 — that is, for every one note of the pokok, the elaboration instruments play four or eight notes. This ratio is not fixed; it varies with tempo and style, and in some fast passages the elaboration may be as dense as 1:16 relative to the slowest-moving instruments.

5.4 The Jegogan and Deep Structural Tones

At the bottom of the texture, the jegogan plays the deepest, slowest-moving notes — one note per gong cycle, or one note per half-cycle. These deep tones mark the most structurally important pitches of the pokok and provide a ponderous, resonant foundation for the entire ensemble. The jegogan’s notes ring for a long time before they are damped, and their slow, majestic pace creates a profound sense of gravity that anchors the rapid activity above.

The jegogan’s part can be understood as a radical reduction of the pokok — a distillation of the melody to its most essential structural tones. If the pemade and kantilan represent the melody magnified and elaborated, the jegogan represents the melody compressed and distilled. Together, all the layers form a complete picture that reveals the melody at every level of detail simultaneously.

5.5 Convergence and Divergence

The interplay between convergence and divergence is central to the aesthetic experience of stratified polyphony. At moments of convergence — typically the gong tone and other structurally weighted beats — all layers align on the same pitch, and the texture momentarily clarifies into a powerful unison or octave sonority. At moments of divergence — the beats between structural points — the layers fan out into a complex, polyrhythmic web of interlocking and elaborating parts, and the texture becomes dense, shimmering, and kaleidoscopic.

This constant oscillation between clarity and complexity, between unison arrival and polyphonic departure, gives gamelan music its characteristic kinetic quality — a sense of perpetual motion toward and away from points of resolution. The gong tone, as the ultimate point of convergence, acquires enormous structural and emotional weight: it is the moment when the entire ensemble breathes together, when all the threads of the musical fabric are momentarily gathered into a single point, before dispersing again into the shimmering complexity of the next cycle.

Chapter 6: Kotekan — Interlocking Patterns

6.1 The Concept of Interlocking

Kotekan is the Balinese term for the technique of distributing a single melodic line between two players (or two groups of players) who alternate notes in rapid succession. Neither player performs the complete melody alone; instead, each plays a complementary subset of the notes, and the two parts combine to form the full pattern. This technique is one of the most distinctive and technically demanding features of Balinese gamelan music, and it is central to the dazzling, rapid-fire surface texture that characterises the kebyar style.

The two complementary parts of a kotekan are called polos (the basic or “on-beat” part) and sangsih (the differing or “off-beat” part). The polos typically plays on the strong beats, while the sangsih fills in the gaps, playing on the weak beats. When performed correctly, the two parts mesh so precisely that they become indistinguishable as separate entities, fusing into a single stream of rapid melody.

The interlocking principle reflects the broader Balinese cosmological concept of complementary duality (rwa bhineda). Just as male and female, mountain and sea, sacred and profane are understood as opposing but interdependent forces that together constitute a complete whole, so polos and sangsih are distinct but inseparable musical halves that together create a unified melody. The technique also embodies the communal ethos of Balinese music-making: no individual can produce the complete pattern alone; each player depends absolutely on their partner.

6.2 Types of Kotekan

Balinese musicians and scholars recognise several distinct types of kotekan, each with characteristic intervallic and rhythmic properties. The three most fundamental types are norot, ubit-ubitan, and kotekan empat.

Norot

Norot (also called ngoret) is a type of kotekan in which the composite melody moves primarily by step, tracing a smooth, flowing path around the pokok tones. The polos part typically plays a note on the beat and rests on the off-beat, while the sangsih fills in the off-beats with neighbouring tones. The resulting composite is a continuous stream of stepwise motion — scale passages that ascend and descend around the pokok melody.

The derivation of a norot pattern from a pokok is relatively systematic. Given a pokok tone, the norot elaboration typically begins on that tone and moves by step to approach the next pokok tone, arriving on the correct pitch at the structurally important beat. The exact path depends on the interval between the two pokok tones: if the next pokok tone is higher, the norot will tend to ascend; if it is lower, it will descend. The smooth, wave-like quality of norot makes it particularly suitable for slow to moderate tempos and for passages with a lyrical, flowing character.

Ubit-Ubitan

Ubit-ubitan (also called ubit) is a type of kotekan in which the two parts alternate in a more percussive, rhythmically regular fashion. Unlike norot, which emphasises smooth melodic contour, ubit-ubitan emphasises rhythmic drive and regularity. The two parts typically alternate single notes in a steady, rapid pulse, creating a mechanical, insistent quality that is highly energetic.

In ubit-ubitan, the interval between the polos and sangsih notes is often a second or a third, creating a texture that is more harmonically charged than the stepwise motion of norot. The regularity of the rhythmic alternation produces a “ticking” quality that can be almost hypnotic at fast tempos, and the slight harmonic tension between the interlocking parts adds a shimmer of dissonance that enhances the overall brilliance of the sound.

Kotekan Empat

Kotekan empat (four-note kotekan) is a more complex type of interlocking in which each part plays two consecutive notes before yielding to the other, creating groups of four notes (two from polos, two from sangsih) that combine into continuous melodic streams. This type allows for more varied melodic contour within each part and can produce composite melodies with a more complex, angular character than norot or ubit-ubitan.

6.3 Deriving Kotekan from a Pokok

One of the essential skills for a Balinese gamelan composer (and for students in this course) is the ability to derive appropriate kotekan patterns from a given pokok melody. This process involves several steps:

1. Identify the pokok tones and the structural beats on which the kotekan must arrive at the pokok pitch.

2. Choose a kotekan type (norot, ubit-ubitan, etc.) appropriate to the desired character and tempo of the passage.

3. Work out the composite melody — the complete stream of notes that the combined polos and sangsih will produce — ensuring that it connects the pokok tones smoothly and arrives on the correct pitches at the correct times.

4. Distribute the composite melody between polos and sangsih according to the conventions of the chosen kotekan type (e.g., polos on the beat, sangsih off the beat for norot; alternating single notes for ubit-ubitan).

5. Refine the parts in rehearsal, adjusting for playability, balance, and aesthetic effect.

6.4 Rhythmic Density and Speed

Kotekan is most spectacular at fast tempos, where the interlocking notes fuse into a continuous stream that seems to exceed the physical capabilities of any single player. At these speeds, the composite melody can reach rates of 12 to 16 notes per second — a staggering density that produces the brilliant, chattering texture that is one of the hallmarks of kebyar-style music.

Achieving this level of precision requires extraordinary coordination between the polos and sangsih players. Each player must have an unerring sense of timing, a thorough internalisation of their part, and an acute awareness of their partner’s part. The two parts must mesh with the precision of interlocking gears: if one player is even slightly early or late, the composite melody dissolves into a muddle. The rehearsal process for bringing kotekan up to performance speed is intensive and physically demanding, involving hours of repetitive practice.

The speed of kotekan is not constant throughout a composition; it varies with the tempo and with the compositional context. In a slow pengawak, the kotekan may be relatively relaxed, with each player having time to articulate each note clearly. In a fast pengecet, the same kotekan type may be performed at breakneck speed, transformed from a flowing melody into a percussive blur. This ability to transform character through tempo change — using the same basic technique at different speeds to produce radically different effects — is one of the great expressive resources of Balinese gamelan music.

6.5 Kotekan as Embodied Knowledge

Learning kotekan is not primarily an intellectual exercise; it is a physical one. The patterns must be internalised to the point where they are automatic — where the hands know what to do without conscious thought. This kind of embodied knowledge, or muscle memory, is developed through repetitive practice over weeks and months. Beginning players often report that kotekan is initially overwhelming — the speed, the coordination, the need to listen to one’s partner while executing one’s own part — but with practice, the patterns become second nature.

The experience of performing kotekan successfully is often described by musicians as a kind of transcendence of individual identity. When the two parts lock in perfectly, the player no longer feels like an individual performing a solo part; instead, they experience themselves as half of a unified musical entity, contributing to a sound that is larger than themselves. This experience resonates with the broader Balinese values of communal identity and the subordination of the individual to the collective — values that are central to the philosophy of this course.

Chapter 7: Kendang — The Drums and Musical Leadership

7.1 The Role of the Drummer

In a Balinese gamelan, the kendang (drum) is the director of the ensemble. While Western orchestras rely on a conductor who stands apart from the ensemble and communicates through gestures, in Balinese gamelan the conductor is a performing member of the group — the lead drummer — who communicates through drum patterns, rhythmic cues, and dynamic signals embedded in the music itself. The drummer does not stand in front of the ensemble; they sit within it, surrounded by the sound, and lead from within.

The drummer’s responsibilities include:

• Setting and controlling the tempo: The drummer establishes the initial tempo of a piece and adjusts it throughout, including the gradual accelerations and decelerations that are characteristic of many Balinese compositions.

• Cueing transitions: When the music moves from one formal section to another — from pengawak to pengecet, for instance — the drummer signals the transition with a specific drum pattern that the ensemble recognises as a cue.

• Signalling starts and stops: The dramatic, explosive beginnings and abrupt endings that characterise kebyar music are coordinated by the drummer’s cues.

• Controlling dynamics: Changes in volume — from the thunderous fortissimo of a kebyar opening to the whispered pianissimo of a delicate passage — are led by the drummer.

• Energising the ensemble: Beyond the purely technical functions of timekeeping and cueing, the drummer provides a rhythmic vitality and drive that animates the entire ensemble. A great drummer does not merely keep time; they inspire the ensemble to play with intensity, precision, and passion.

7.2 Paired Drumming: Kendang Lanang and Kendang Wadon

Like the metallophones, the drums in Balinese gamelan come in complementary pairs. The kendang lanang (male drum) is the smaller of the two, with a higher pitch and a tighter, more penetrating sound. The kendang wadon (female drum) is larger, with a deeper, more resonant tone. The two drums are played by two musicians sitting side by side, and their parts interlock in a rapid, complex dialogue that mirrors the kotekan technique of the metallophones.

The lead drummer typically plays the kendang lanang, using its sharper, more articulate sound to project the cues and signals that guide the ensemble. The wadon player follows the lanang’s lead, filling in the complementary rhythmic strokes. The relationship between the two drummers requires an extraordinary degree of mutual understanding and coordination; they must anticipate each other’s moves with the same precision that polos and sangsih players bring to kotekan.

Each drum produces a variety of timbres depending on where and how it is struck. The basic strokes include open tones (letting the head ring freely), closed or muted tones (dampening the head with the palm), slaps (sharp, percussive attacks), and bass tones (struck near the centre of the head). The combination of these timbres in rapid interlocking patterns creates a richly textured rhythmic language that is both structurally functional and musically expressive.

7.3 Drum Patterns and Compositional Structure

Drum patterns in Balinese gamelan are not improvised; they are composed and rehearsed with the same care as the melodic parts. Different formal sections have characteristic drum patterns associated with them, and a knowledgeable listener can identify the formal structure of a piece by listening to the drums alone.

In the pengawak (the stately main section), the drum pattern tends to be relatively sparse and even, maintaining a steady pulse that supports the slow, measured unfolding of the melody. In the pengecet (the faster, more animated section), the drumming becomes more dense and intricate, with rapid interlocking patterns that propel the music forward with urgent energy. Transitional passages between sections are marked by specific drumming formulas — angsel (rhythmic breaks or accents) — that signal the ensemble to shift tempo, dynamic, or formal section.

The angsel is one of the most dramatic and exciting elements of Balinese gamelan performance. In kebyar music, angsel can be stunningly sudden — the entire ensemble may be playing at full volume and then stop dead on a single beat, leaving a split second of silence before resuming. These moments of sudden silence are as dramatic as the loudest passages, and they require perfect synchronisation across the ensemble. The angsel is initiated by the drummer, and its success depends on every player in the ensemble recognising and responding to the drum cue instantaneously.

7.4 The Drummer as Conductor and Performer

The dual role of the drummer — as both a performing musician and the director of the ensemble — creates a unique relationship between musical leadership and musical participation. Unlike a Western conductor, who stands apart from the ensemble and does not produce sound, the Balinese drummer is immersed in the act of playing. The cues and signals that direct the ensemble are not separate from the music; they are part of it. The drummer leads by playing, and plays by leading.

This integration of leadership and participation is profoundly characteristic of Balinese culture, in which authority is typically exercised through engagement rather than detachment. The drummer does not command from above; they guide from within. Their authority is demonstrated not by standing apart but by playing with such skill, confidence, and musicality that the ensemble naturally follows.

The training of a drummer in Bali is long and demanding. A young drummer begins by learning basic patterns, then gradually takes on more complex material, eventually learning the complete drumming repertoire for all the compositions the ensemble performs. But technical mastery is only part of the requirement; a great drummer must also possess musical sensitivity, an understanding of dramatic pacing, the ability to read and respond to the energy of the ensemble, and the charisma to inspire confidence. In many ways, the drummer is the most complete musician in the ensemble — the one who must understand not just their own part but the entire composition, in all its layers and dimensions.

7.5 Drumming Techniques and Notation

Balinese drumming employs a wide vocabulary of hand strokes, each producing a distinct timbre and carrying a specific name. Although drumming is primarily taught through oral demonstration and imitation, a system of syllabic notation (onomatopoeic syllables) exists for communicating drum patterns verbally. Each syllable represents a specific stroke:

These syllables are strung together into patterns that can be spoken aloud, creating a vocal representation of the drum part that serves as a mnemonic aid during teaching and learning. A teacher might speak a pattern — “dag-tut-ka-pak-dag-dug-tut-ka” — while demonstrating the corresponding hand strokes, and the student would imitate both the spoken pattern and the physical motions until the two are fully internalised.

Chapter 8: Gamelan Gong Kebyar

8.1 History and the Kebyar Revolution

Gamelan Gong Kebyar is the dominant gamelan genre in Bali today, and its emergence in the early twentieth century represents one of the most dramatic musical revolutions in the history of any musical tradition. The word kebyar means “to burst open” or “to flare up,” like the sudden blossoming of a flower or the eruption of a flame, and it perfectly captures the explosive, dynamic character of the style.

The kebyar style originated in the villages of northern Bali (Buleleng regency) around 1914-1915. According to the historical accounts compiled by scholars such as Ruby Ornstein and Michael Tenzer, several villages in the north — including Jagaraga, Bungkulan, and Busungbiu — independently developed a new approach to gamelan music that broke decisively with the stately, cyclically regular conventions of the older court traditions. Where the older music (exemplified by Gamelan Gong Gede, the great ceremonial ensemble) was measured, predictable, and architecturally symmetrical, kebyar was explosive, unpredictable, and dramatically asymmetrical.

The emergence of kebyar was connected to broader social changes in Bali. The Dutch colonial conquest of northern Bali in the late nineteenth century had disrupted the traditional court system, and with it the patronage networks that had sustained the older musical genres. Freed from courtly conventions, village musicians began experimenting with new forms and styles. At the same time, the growing popularity of inter-village competitions (mekembar) created an arena in which innovation was rewarded and conservatism penalised.

8.2 I Wayan Lotring and Early Kebyar Pioneers

Among the earliest and most influential figures in the development of kebyar was I Wayan Lotring (c. 1890-1983) from the village of Kuta in southern Bali. Lotring was a polymath musician — a virtuoso drummer, dancer, and composer — who played a crucial role in the transmission of kebyar from the north to the south of the island and in the refinement of the style into a mature art form.

Lotring’s compositions and arrangements helped establish many of the conventions that define kebyar today: the use of extended solo passages (particularly for the trompong, a row of small pot gongs played by a single musician), the integration of dance and instrumental music (as in the genre kebyar duduk, in which a dancer performs seated while simultaneously interacting with the gamelan), and the development of compositions that follow a dramatic arc rather than a purely cyclic structure.

Other important early kebyar figures include I Wayan Beratha (1924-2014), widely regarded as one of the greatest Balinese composers of the twentieth century, and I Nyoman Kaler (1897-1971), who contributed major innovations in compositional form and drumming technique. These composers — and many others whose names are less well known outside Bali — collectively transformed Balinese music from a primarily ceremonial art into an art that is simultaneously ceremonial, theatrical, and concert-oriented.

8.3 Characteristic Features of the Kebyar Style

The kebyar style is defined by a cluster of interrelated characteristics that together distinguish it sharply from the older gamelan traditions:

Explosive dynamics: Kebyar music features dramatic, sudden contrasts between loud and soft. The most iconic kebyar gesture is the opening kebyar itself: a sudden, explosive unison attack by the full ensemble, arriving without warning and at maximum volume. This opening salvo — which gave the style its name — is designed to seize the listener’s attention with overwhelming sonic force.

Rapid tempo changes: Unlike the older styles, which typically maintain a steady tempo within each section, kebyar music features frequent and dramatic changes of speed. A passage may accelerate from a measured andante to a breakneck presto in the space of a few beats, or the music may suddenly freeze on a single sustained tone before resuming at a completely different tempo. These tempo fluctuations are coordinated by the drummer and require the entire ensemble to respond with split-second precision.

Virtuosic unison passages: Kebyar composers make extensive use of unyisan or unison passages in which the entire gangsa section plays the same rapid, complex melody in exact synchronisation. These unison passages are among the most thrilling moments in kebyar performance: twenty or more metallophones playing the same rapid-fire melody with absolute precision, creating a wall of brilliant, intricately articulated sound.

Compositional freedom: While kebyar compositions draw on traditional formal structures (tabuh forms, gong cycles), they also incorporate passages of considerable structural freedom — cadenza-like solo sections, through-composed developmental passages, and dramatic pauses that break the cyclic flow. This freedom gives kebyar compositions a dramatic, narrative quality that is absent from the more strictly cyclic older repertoire.

Integration of dance: Many kebyar compositions are designed to accompany dance, and the relationship between music and dance in kebyar is extraordinarily intimate. The music follows the dancer’s movements moment by moment, accelerating when the dancer speeds up, pausing when the dancer freezes, and punctuating each gesture with precisely coordinated accents. This level of musical responsiveness requires the drummer (who watches the dancer) to adjust the ensemble’s playing in real time — a feat of coordination that is one of the most impressive aspects of kebyar performance.

8.4 Instrumentation of Gamelan Gong Kebyar

A full Gamelan Gong Kebyar typically includes approximately 25 to 30 instruments played by a similar number of musicians. The standard instrumentation includes:

8.5 Major Kebyar Compositions and Repertoire

The kebyar repertoire is vast and continually expanding, as new compositions are created for competitions and concerts each year. Certain pieces have achieved canonical status and are considered masterworks of the genre:

Tabuh Kreasi Oleg Tambulilingan (Bumblebee Dance), composed by I Mario in the 1950s, is one of the most beloved kebyar compositions. Originally conceived as a dance depicting two bumblebees flirting among flowers, it features delicate, playful music that shifts between tender lyricism and exuberant energy. The piece showcases the kebyar style’s capacity for subtlety and nuance as well as its more commonly celebrated dynamism.

Works by I Nyoman Windha (b. 1956), one of the most important living Balinese composers, represent the cutting edge of the kreasi baru movement. Windha’s compositions are notable for their structural ambition, their sophisticated use of extended kebyar technique, and their willingness to incorporate influences from outside the traditional Balinese idiom while remaining rooted in gamelan aesthetics.

I Wayan Beratha’s compositions from the mid-twentieth century are considered foundational to the kebyar canon. His works established many of the formal conventions that subsequent composers have built upon, and they remain in active performance throughout Bali.

The course’s own professor, I Dewa Made Suparta, represents the continuation of this creative tradition, bringing the aesthetic values and compositional techniques of Balinese music to a cross-cultural educational setting where students create their own new works within the gamelan idiom.

Chapter 9: Other Gamelan Genres

9.1 Gamelan Semar Pegulingan

Gamelan Semar Pegulingan (the “Gamelan of the Love God”) is a refined, seven-tone pelog ensemble that was historically associated with the royal courts of Bali. Its name refers to Semar, a divine figure associated with love and romance, and pegulingan, meaning “of the bedchamber” — the ensemble traditionally played in the inner quarters of the palace to entertain the king and his court.

The distinguishing feature of Gamelan Semar Pegulingan is its use of the full seven-tone pelog system, which allows for modal variety that is not available in the five-tone ensembles. The music can shift between different five-tone subsets (patutan or modes) within a single composition, creating effects of tonal colour change that add harmonic richness to the repertoire.

The ensemble’s instrumentation is similar to Gamelan Gong Kebyar but typically somewhat smaller and more delicate. The trompong (a row of tuned pot gongs played by a single musician) features prominently as a solo instrument, and the overall dynamic range tends to be narrower than in kebyar — more suited to the intimate courtly context in which the music was originally performed.

Although the royal courts that originally supported Gamelan Semar Pegulingan have largely ceased to exist, the tradition has been preserved through the efforts of dedicated musicians and scholars. Several villages maintain active Semar Pegulingan ensembles, and the repertoire has been revived and recorded by ethnomusicologists including Lisa Gold and Michael Tenzer.

9.2 Gamelan Angklung

Gamelan Angklung is a four-tone slendro ensemble used primarily for cremation ceremonies and other rituals associated with death and the afterlife. Despite its funerary association, the music is not sombre; it is often bright, energetic, and rhythmically vital, reflecting the Balinese understanding of cremation as a joyful liberation of the soul.

The ensemble’s four-tone tuning gives its music a distinctive quality — simpler and more direct than the five-tone music of Gong Kebyar, but with a clarity and charm that is immediately appealing. The repertoire includes both processional pieces (for accompanying the cremation procession) and seated pieces for temple ceremonies. In many villages, Gamelan Angklung is the ensemble that the widest range of community members participate in, including older musicians who may no longer be able to handle the demands of the more technically challenging kebyar repertoire.

The name “angklung” comes from a type of shaken bamboo rattle that was historically part of the ensemble’s instrumentation, though in many modern versions the angklung rattles have been replaced by bronze metallophones. The ensemble’s association with cremation makes it one of the most frequently heard gamelan types in Bali, given the frequency of funerary ceremonies.

9.3 Gamelan Jegog

Gamelan Jegog is a spectacular ensemble made entirely of bamboo, featuring giant bamboo tubes that can be up to three metres long and produce an extraordinarily deep, resonant tone. The ensemble originates from the Jembrana regency in western Bali and has become increasingly famous both within Bali and internationally for its thunderous sound and its thrilling performance tradition of mekembar (competition), in which two gamelan jegog ensembles face each other and engage in a musical duel.

The ensemble consists of several sizes of bamboo instruments, from the massive jegog (the lowest, which gives the ensemble its name) through intermediate sizes to the small, high-pitched barangan that play rapid interlocking patterns analogous to the kotekan of bronze gamelan. The music is structurally similar to other Balinese gamelan forms — featuring a core melody, colotomic punctuation, and interlocking elaboration — but the timbral quality is completely different: warm, woody, and deeply resonant rather than bright and metallic.

The competitive performance tradition of gamelan jegog is one of the most electrifying spectacles in Balinese music. Two ensembles set up facing each other, and each attempts to play louder, faster, and with more energy than the other. The audience surrounds the two ensembles, and the atmosphere is raucous and intensely exciting, more like a sporting event than a concert. The mekembar tradition exemplifies the competitive spirit that has been a major driver of musical innovation in Bali.

9.4 Gender Wayang

Gender Wayang is a small, exquisitely refined ensemble of four metallophones (gender) that accompanies the wayang kulit (shadow puppet theatre) and is also played at important life-cycle ceremonies including cremations and tooth-filing rituals. The ensemble consists of two pairs of gender — a pair of large, low-pitched gender (gender gede) and a pair of small, high-pitched gender (gender barangan) — tuned in the slendro system.

Gender wayang is considered one of the most technically challenging forms of Balinese music. Each player uses two mallets — one in each hand — to play melodic lines on the keys while simultaneously damping previously struck keys with the wrists or the sides of the hands. The coordination required to play melody and damp accurately with both hands simultaneously is formidable, and gender wayang players are among the most respected musicians in Bali.

The repertoire of gender wayang is vast, encompassing hundreds of compositions associated with different episodes of the Mahabharata and Ramayana (the two great Indian epics that form the narrative basis of shadow puppet theatre). Each piece has a specific dramatic function — a battle scene, a love scene, a moment of sorrow or triumph — and the gender players must know the entire repertoire and be able to follow the puppeteer’s narrative in real time, providing appropriate musical accompaniment for each dramatic moment.

9.5 Gamelan Gambang and Gamelan Selonding

Among the most ancient and sacred gamelan types in Bali are Gamelan Gambang and Gamelan Selonding, both of which are preserved in specific villages and played only in certain ritual contexts.

Gamelan Gambang is a seven-tone pelog ensemble that features bamboo xylophones (gambang) alongside bronze metallophones. It is played exclusively for cremation ceremonies of the highest caste (Brahmana) and for certain temple rituals. The music is stately, meditative, and rhythmically free, with a quality quite different from the driving energy of kebyar. The ensemble is considered so sacred that it is never performed for entertainment or outside its ritual context.

Gamelan Selonding is an ancient iron-keyed ensemble found in the Bali Aga (original Balinese) villages of eastern Bali, particularly Tenganan Pegringsingan. The instruments are forged from iron rather than bronze, giving them a dark, austere timbral quality. The repertoire is linked to the pre-Hindu ritual traditions of the Bali Aga people and is believed to be among the oldest surviving music in Bali. The gamelan selonding is treated as a sacred heirloom; the instruments are never replaced, and when they eventually deteriorate beyond repair, the tradition will die with them — a poignant reminder of the fragility of oral musical traditions.

Chapter 10: Oral Transmission and Learning

10.1 How Music Is Taught Without Notation

One of the most striking features of Balinese gamelan tradition, from a Western perspective, is that the vast majority of music is transmitted orally — without the use of written notation. Compositions are learned by watching, listening, and imitating a teacher; they are memorised through repetitive practice; and they are retained in the collective memory of the ensemble rather than in written scores.

This does not mean that Balinese music is “simple” or “unsophisticated” — quite the opposite. The absence of notation places enormous demands on memory, aural acuity, and the ability to learn through embodied practice. A skilled gamelan musician may carry hundreds of compositions in memory, along with the ability to realise the appropriate kotekan, drumming patterns, and dynamic nuances for each piece. This represents an extraordinary feat of musical memory, comparable in scope (if different in kind) to the memorisation demands placed on Western concert pianists or opera singers.

10.2 The Teaching Process

The typical process of learning a new piece in a Balinese gamelan ensemble follows a well-established pattern. The teacher (guru) — often a distinguished composer or performer who has been invited by the banjar to teach the ensemble — demonstrates the piece section by section, starting with the core melody (pokok) and then building up the other layers.

The teaching process generally proceeds as follows:

1. The teacher plays or sings the pokok, repeating it several times until the calung and jublag players can reproduce it accurately.

2. The elaboration parts are added, with the teacher demonstrating the composite kotekan melody and then helping the polos and sangsih groups work out their respective parts. This is often the most time-consuming phase, especially for complex kotekan patterns.

3. The drum patterns are worked out, typically in collaboration between the teacher and the ensemble’s drummers. The drummer must learn not only the patterns themselves but also how they relate to the melodic structure and how to use them to cue the ensemble.

4. The colotomic parts and other supporting instruments (ceng-ceng, suling, reyong) are added.

5. The full ensemble rehearses the piece together, repeatedly, until it reaches the desired level of precision, synchronisation, and musical expression.

Throughout this process, the primary method is demonstration and imitation. The teacher plays a phrase; the students repeat it. The teacher corrects errors; the students try again. The process is patient, repetitive, and intensely aural — the students are listening not just to their own parts but to the entire ensemble, developing the holistic awareness that is essential to good gamelan playing.

10.3 Cipher Notation: Ding-Dong-Deng-Dung-Dang

While oral transmission remains the primary mode of teaching and learning, a simple system of cipher notation has been developed and is used in certain contexts — particularly in educational settings, for analysis and documentation, and as a memory aid. This system represents each pitch by its solmization syllable or, more commonly, by a number:

A melody can thus be represented as a sequence of numbers — for example, 3 5 6 5 3 2 1 2 — with rhythmic values indicated by spacing, dots above or below the numbers (for octave register), and special symbols for rests and other musical features.

10.4 Memory and Embodied Knowledge

Learning gamelan music is fundamentally a process of embodying the music — of internalising it so deeply that it becomes part of one’s physical being, not just an intellectual understanding. The hands learn the patterns; the body learns the posture and the movements of playing; the ears learn to hear not just one’s own part but the entire ensemble in all its layers.

This embodied knowledge is qualitatively different from the kind of knowledge gained by reading a score. A musician who has learned a piece through oral transmission does not merely know the sequence of notes; they know how the piece feels — how the mallet strikes the key, how the damping hand follows, how the body sways with the rhythm, how the music sounds from inside the ensemble. This knowledge is stored not in the prefrontal cortex but in the motor cortex, the cerebellum, and the auditory cortex — it is, in the fullest sense, a knowledge of the whole body.

The concept of embodied musical knowledge has been extensively studied by ethnomusicologists and cognitive scientists. Research has shown that musicians who learn through oral transmission develop stronger aural skills, better ensemble awareness, and a more flexible, adaptable approach to performance than those who rely primarily on notation. These findings validate what Balinese musicians have known for centuries: that the most effective way to learn music is to immerse oneself in its sound and to practice until the music becomes second nature.

10.5 The Teacher-Student Relationship

The relationship between teacher (guru) and student (murid) in Balinese music is characterised by deep respect, personal devotion, and a sense of spiritual as well as artistic transmission. The teacher is not merely a transmitter of technical information; they are a bearer of a living tradition, a link in a chain that connects the present to the past. To learn from a teacher is to receive not just musical knowledge but a piece of the teacher’s artistic identity and, through them, the artistic identities of all the teachers who came before.

In traditional Balinese practice, a student does not choose a teacher casually. The relationship is formalized through a ceremony in which the student expresses their commitment and the teacher accepts the responsibility of transmission. The student is expected to show respect through attentive behaviour, willingness to practice, and loyalty. In return, the teacher is expected to share their knowledge generously and to guide the student’s development with care and patience.

This model of musical transmission has implications for how composition is understood in Bali. A composer does not create in a vacuum; they draw on everything they have learned from their teachers, and their work is understood as a continuation and development of the tradition they have received. The concept of individual artistic “originality” in the Western Romantic sense — the idea of the lone genius creating something entirely new — has little currency in Balinese musical culture. Instead, creativity is understood as the ability to recombine, transform, and revitalize the materials of tradition in ways that are at once new and deeply rooted.

Chapter 11: Composition in the Balinese Idiom

11.1 Kreasi Baru: New Creations

Kreasi baru (new creation) is the term used in Bali for original compositions that are created within the gamelan idiom but are not part of the traditional, inherited repertoire. The kreasi baru movement emerged in the mid-twentieth century and has been closely associated with the competitive festival system (particularly the Bali Arts Festival) that provides the primary venue and incentive for new compositions.

Kreasi baru compositions occupy a fascinating position between tradition and innovation. On one hand, they are rooted in the fundamental techniques of Balinese gamelan — kotekan, colotomic structure, stratified polyphony, drumming cues, and the five-tone modal system. On the other hand, they are expected to be new — to offer something that the audience and the competition judges have not heard before. This tension between rootedness and novelty is the central creative challenge of composing for gamelan in the contemporary context.

The range of innovation in kreasi baru is wide. Some compositions introduce relatively modest innovations — a new kotekan pattern, an unusual formal structure, a surprising modulation between modes. Others are boldly experimental, incorporating influences from Western music, jazz, rock, or other Indonesian traditions; using extended instrumental techniques; or exploring programmatic or narrative concepts that push the boundaries of what gamelan music can express.

11.2 Composing for Gamelan

Composing for Balinese gamelan differs from Western composition in several fundamental ways. The most important difference is that gamelan composition is typically an oral and collaborative process. The composer does not sit alone at a desk writing notes on paper; instead, they work with the ensemble in rehearsal, teaching the piece section by section, adjusting and refining as they go.

This process has been described by Michael Tenzer as “composing in the medium of rehearsal.” The composer arrives at rehearsal with the piece partially or fully conceived in their mind — they know the pokok, the formal structure, the key kotekan patterns, and the drumming — but the details are worked out in real time, in dialogue with the players. The composer sings a melodic line; the players try to reproduce it on their instruments; the composer listens, adjusts, and sings again. The kotekan parts are worked out through a combination of the composer’s demonstration and the players’ experimentation. The drumming is developed in collaboration with the drummers, who may suggest patterns or variations that the composer incorporates.

11.3 Balancing Tradition and Innovation

The challenge of kreasi baru composition is to create something new that is also recognisably Balinese — to innovate within the tradition rather than abandoning it. This balance is maintained through several mechanisms:

Formal conventions: Even the most innovative kreasi baru typically employs recognisable formal structures — an introduction (kawitan), a stately main section (pengawak), a fast concluding section (pengecet) — that ground the composition in familiar territory.

Kotekan technique: The use of interlocking patterns remains virtually universal in kreasi baru, even when other aspects of the music are highly experimental. Kotekan is so central to the Balinese gamelan sound that its absence would make a composition feel fundamentally un-Balinese.

Colotomic structure: The gong cycle continues to serve as the structural backbone of most kreasi baru, though composers may experiment with irregular cycle lengths, asymmetric colotomic patterns, or passages in which the cyclic structure is temporarily suspended for dramatic effect.

Tuning and scale: Kreasi baru are composed for the five-tone (or seven-tone) systems of the existing ensembles, and the characteristic sound of pelog or slendro tuning anchors the music in the Balinese sonic world regardless of what other innovations are present.

Performance context: Kreasi baru are performed by traditional gamelan ensembles in traditional performance contexts (festivals, temple ceremonies, concerts), and this institutional continuity helps maintain the connection between new works and the living tradition.

11.4 The Composer as Teacher and Performer

In Balinese tradition, the composer is not a detached creator who hands a finished score to performers; the composer is an active participant in the performance of their own work. This principle — that a composer must be able to perform what they compose — has several important consequences.

First, it ensures that compositions are idiomatically written for the instruments. Because the composer has direct physical experience of playing gamelan, they understand the capabilities and limitations of each instrument from the inside and can write parts that are challenging but playable.

Second, it means that the composer’s musical knowledge is embodied rather than purely theoretical. A gamelan composer does not learn their craft by studying composition textbooks; they learn by playing in ensembles for years, absorbing the tradition through their hands and ears, and gradually developing the understanding and confidence to create new works within that tradition.

Third, it reinforces the communal nature of music-making. The composer who performs with the ensemble is not an authority figure imposing their will from outside; they are a member of the community, working alongside their fellow musicians to bring a shared vision to life.

This principle is central to the pedagogy of this course. Students are expected not only to learn about Balinese composition but to do it — to compose original pieces and to perform them with the ensemble. The experience of composing, teaching, and performing within the gamelan idiom is understood as inseparable from the intellectual understanding of how the music works.

11.5 Contemporary Balinese Composers

The vitality of the kreasi baru movement is sustained by a community of active composers who continue to push the boundaries of what gamelan music can be. Among the most prominent contemporary Balinese composers are:

I Nyoman Windha (b. 1956): A graduate of the Indonesian Institute of the Arts (ISI) in Denpasar and one of the most internationally recognised Balinese composers. Windha’s works are known for their formal ambition, their sophisticated use of modality and texture, and their integration of elements from multiple Balinese and non-Balinese musical traditions. He has composed for both traditional gamelan and mixed ensembles, and his works have been performed at festivals and concerts worldwide.

I Wayan Balawan (b. 1973): A guitarist and composer who bridges the worlds of Balinese gamelan and global popular music. Balawan is known for his virtuosic guitar technique (incorporating tapping and other extended techniques) and for compositions that fuse gamelan structures and aesthetics with rock, jazz, and other contemporary styles. His work represents one direction of Balinese musical innovation — an outward-looking fusion that brings gamelan into dialogue with global musical currents.

I Dewa Made Suparta: The professor for this course, Suparta represents the tradition of the composer-performer-teacher who brings Balinese musical values into cross-cultural educational settings. His work in university gamelan programs demonstrates that the principles of Balinese composition — oral transmission, communal creation, the integration of composition and performance — can be meaningfully practised outside Bali, by students from diverse musical backgrounds.

I Komang Astita, I Wayan Rai, and I Wayan Dibia are among other important figures who have contributed to the kreasi baru tradition through their compositions, their teaching at ISI Denpasar, and their scholarly work on Balinese performing arts.

Chapter 12: Balinese Music in Global Context

12.1 Gamelan in the West

The Western encounter with gamelan music has a long and fascinating history. The earliest significant exposure came at the Paris Exposition Universelle of 1889, where a Javanese gamelan ensemble was exhibited and performed. Among the visitors was the French composer Claude Debussy (1862-1918), who was profoundly struck by the gamelan’s sound. Debussy later wrote that he found in gamelan music a tonal palette and a sense of formal fluidity that he could not find in the Western tradition, and the influence of gamelan — particularly its layered textures, pentatonic melodies, and non-developmental approach to form — can be heard in works such as Pagodes (from Estampes, 1903) and in the shimmering, non-functional harmonies of his mature orchestral and piano music.

Since Debussy, a number of Western composers have been influenced by gamelan music to varying degrees:

Benjamin Britten (1913-1976) visited Bali in 1956 and was deeply affected by the kebyar music he heard there. The influence of Balinese gamelan is particularly evident in his ballet score The Prince of the Pagodas (1957), which includes passages directly modelled on kebyar textures, and in several of his later works, including the opera Death in Venice (1973).

Steve Reich (b. 1936) has acknowledged the influence of both Balinese and Ghanaian musical traditions on his development of the minimalist style. The interlocking patterns that are central to Reich’s music — in works such as Music for 18 Musicians (1976) and Drumming (1971) — bear a structural resemblance to Balinese kotekan, though Reich has emphasized that his techniques were independently developed and later confirmed by his study of non-Western music.

Colin McPhee (1900-1964), a Canadian-American composer and ethnomusicologist, lived in Bali from 1931 to 1939 and produced one of the earliest and most important Western studies of Balinese music, Music in Bali (Yale University Press, 1966). McPhee’s orchestral work Tabuh-Tabuhan (1936) is a pioneering attempt to bring Balinese gamelan textures into the Western orchestral medium.

Michael Tenzer (b. 1957), one of the recommended authors for this course, is both a scholar and a practising composer who has written extensively about Balinese gamelan and has composed works for both Western and gamelan forces. His book Gamelan Gong Kebyar is the most comprehensive study of kebyar music in any language.

12.2 University Gamelan Programs

One of the most significant developments in the global dissemination of gamelan music has been the establishment of gamelan ensembles at Western universities. Beginning in the 1950s and 1960s, several American universities — most notably UCLA, Wesleyan University, and the California Institute of the Arts (CalArts) — acquired Balinese and Javanese gamelan instruments and established performance programs under the guidance of visiting Indonesian musicians.

These programs have served multiple purposes:

• They provide Western students with direct, hands-on experience of a radically different approach to music-making — communal rather than individualistic, oral rather than literate, cyclical rather than linear.

• They create venues for Indonesian musicians to teach and perform outside their home country, fostering cross-cultural dialogue and providing financial support for traditional artists.

• They generate a body of Western-trained musicians who have deep knowledge of gamelan and who go on to compose, perform, teach, and write about the tradition, further expanding its global reach.

• They challenge ethnocentric assumptions about the nature and value of music, exposing students to a tradition that is as complex, sophisticated, and artistically profound as any Western art music — but that operates according to entirely different principles.

The gamelan program at UCLA, founded by the ethnomusicologist Mantle Hood in the 1950s, was among the first and most influential. Hood’s concept of “bi-musicality” — the idea that ethnomusicologists should learn to perform the music they study, just as linguists learn to speak the languages they study — was revolutionary and helped establish performance as a central method in ethnomusicological research.

Today, gamelan programs exist at dozens of universities across North America, Europe, and Australia. The ensemble at the institution offering this course provides students with exactly the kind of immersive, hands-on learning experience that Hood envisioned: the opportunity to learn Balinese music from the inside, under the guidance of a Balinese master teacher, using oral transmission methods.

12.3 Cross-Cultural Collaboration

The presence of gamelan in Western educational and concert settings has given rise to a growing body of cross-cultural collaborative work — compositions and performances that bring together Balinese and Western musicians, instruments, and musical ideas. These collaborations take many forms:

Balinese composers writing for mixed ensembles: Composers such as I Nyoman Windha and I Wayan Sadra have created works that combine gamelan with Western instruments, exploring the timbral and structural possibilities of mixed instrumentation.

Western composers writing for gamelan: A growing number of Western-trained composers have studied gamelan and created original works for Balinese or Javanese ensembles. Some of these works are closely modelled on traditional forms; others use the gamelan instrumentarium as a platform for experimental or avant-garde exploration.

Joint workshops and festivals: Events such as the Bali Arts Festival, the International Gamelan Festival (held periodically in various locations), and university-sponsored workshops bring together musicians from different traditions for collaborative creation and performance.

Student compositions: In courses like this one, students from diverse musical backgrounds compose original works for gamelan, bringing their own musical perspectives and training to bear on the Balinese idiom. The results are often surprising and creative, demonstrating that the gamelan’s musical system is flexible enough to accommodate a wide range of artistic visions while maintaining its distinctive character.

These cross-cultural collaborations raise important questions about cultural ownership, authenticity, and the ethics of borrowing. Is it appropriate for Western musicians to compose for Balinese instruments? Does cross-cultural collaboration enrich or dilute the traditions involved? Who has the authority to determine what is and is not “authentic” Balinese music? These questions do not have simple answers, but engaging with them is an essential part of the education that this course provides.

12.4 World Music Debates

The global dissemination of gamelan music takes place within a broader context of debate about “World Music” — a commercial and conceptual category that has been both celebrated and critiqued since its emergence in the late 1980s.

Supporters of the World Music concept argue that it has brought greater visibility and economic viability to musical traditions that might otherwise be marginalized by the global dominance of Western pop music. By creating a market category — a section in the record store, a slot in the festival lineup, a genre tag in the streaming service — World Music has made it possible for Balinese gamelan, West African drumming, Indian classical music, and countless other traditions to reach audiences far beyond their original cultural contexts.

Critics argue that the World Music label homogenises vastly different traditions under a single, exoticising rubric; that it reinforces a power asymmetry in which Western music is the unmarked norm and everything else is “world” music; and that it commodifies cultural expressions that are not meant to be consumed as entertainment by outsiders. The ethnomusicologist Steven Feld has characterised the World Music industry as a form of “schizophonia” — the separation of sounds from their social contexts — that strips music of its meaning and function.

Balinese gamelan occupies an interesting position in the World Music landscape. On one hand, it has been extensively recorded, transcribed, analysed, and incorporated into Western musical practice, and it is one of the non-Western traditions most familiar to Western audiences. On the other hand, gamelan in Bali remains a deeply embedded, living cultural practice — not a relic or a museum piece but an active, evolving tradition that continues to fulfil essential social and spiritual functions. The challenge for anyone studying Balinese music from outside is to engage with it respectfully and deeply enough to appreciate both its aesthetic richness and its cultural embeddedness.

12.5 Gamelan’s Influence on Western Composers and the Future

The influence of Balinese gamelan on Western art music extends beyond the specific examples discussed above and has contributed to broader shifts in Western musical thinking. The encounter with gamelan has helped to:

Expand the Western concept of timbre: Gamelan’s unique timbral world — the shimmering ombak, the rich harmonic spectrum of bronze, the layered texture of metallophones at different octaves — has inspired Western composers and instrument builders to explore new timbral possibilities. The prepared piano techniques of John Cage, for instance, owe something to the gamelan’s example of creating complex timbres through unconventional means.

Challenge Western assumptions about form: The cyclical, non-developmental approach to form that characterises gamelan music has provided an alternative model for Western composers dissatisfied with the teleological, narrative approach to form that dominated Western music from the Classical period through the early twentieth century. The influence of cyclical thinking can be heard in the music of minimalist composers and in various strands of experimental and ambient music.

Promote collective music-making: The gamelan’s emphasis on communal creation and performance has inspired alternative models of music-making in the West, from community gamelan programs to collective composition projects. These initiatives challenge the Western cult of the individual genius and propose a more democratic, participatory approach to musical creativity.

Encourage cross-cultural musical literacy: The study of gamelan has been instrumental in the development of ethnomusicology as an academic discipline and in the broader movement toward multicultural music education. By demonstrating that complex, sophisticated music can be created according to principles radically different from those of the Western tradition, gamelan has helped to expand the definition of what music is and can be.

Looking to the future, the relationship between Balinese gamelan and Western musical culture is likely to continue evolving in unpredictable and productive ways. As digital technology makes it easier to share recordings, videos, and educational materials across cultural boundaries, and as climate change, tourism, and globalisation continue to transform Balinese society, the tradition will face new challenges and opportunities. What seems certain is that the fundamental values that animate Balinese music — community, balance, integration, and the pursuit of collective beauty — will remain relevant and inspiring, offering a powerful alternative to the individualism and commodification that characterise much of the globalised music industry.

The work of this course — learning to play gamelan, learning to listen analytically, composing new pieces within the tradition, and performing together as an ensemble — is a small but meaningful contribution to the ongoing dialogue between Balinese musical culture and the wider world. By engaging with the tradition on its own terms — through oral learning, communal practice, and embodied knowledge — students gain not just musical skills but a deeper understanding of what it means to make music together, and of the extraordinary culture that has made communal music-making one of its highest values.

Appendix: Glossary of Key Terms